A culturally nuanced test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's "general theory": Dimensionality and generalizability in Japan and the United States

The current research addresses two specific issues that direct attention to the relatively neglected topic of the cross-cultural applicability of Gottfredson and Hirschi's "general theory" that has been developed in and tested primarily in the United States. With theoretical and empirical guidance from the literature on dimensionality of low self-control, we first predict that the six elements identified in the theory form a multidimensional latent construct in two diverse societies-Japan and the United States. Drawing on the literature concerning cultural variability in individualism, and inconsistent with self-control theory, the authors then expect that although low self-control leads to deviance in both societies, the causal relationship is stronger among Americans than among Japanese. Analysis of identical survey data collected simultaneously from college students in Japan and the United States provides somewhat mixed support for our expectations and the findings appear largely consistent with predictions by self-control theory.