Estrogen receptor-α mediates gender differences in atherosclerosis induced by HIV protease inhibitors

As part of highly active antiretroviral therapy, protease inhibitor treatment has significantly increased the lifespan of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals. Many patients, however, develop negative side effects, including premature atherosclerosis. We have previously demonstrated that in male low density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R) null mice, HIV protease inhibitors induce atherosclerotic lesions and cholesterol accumulation in macrophages in the absence of changes in plasma lipid levels. We determined that these increases were due to an up-regulation of the scavenger receptor, CD36. In the present study, we examined the effects of HIV protease inhibitors in female LDL-R null mice. Female mice given ritonavir and amprenavir (23 and 10 μg/mouse/ day, respectively) developed fewer atherosclerotic lesions than males. Furthermore, peritoneal macrophages isolated from ritonavir-treated females had reduced levels of cholesterol accumulation as compared with males, and CD36 protein levels were increased to a significantly lesser degree in females than in males. To investigate the molecular mechanisms of this gender difference, we examined the effect of genetically removing estrogen receptor-α (ERα). In female mice lacking both LDL-R and ERα, the protective effect of gender was lost. Additionally, the reduced levels of cholesterol accumulation in macrophages observed in females was reversed. Furthermore, the absence of ERα resulted in increased expression of CD36 protein in a macrophage-specific manner in mice treated with ritonavir. These data demonstrate that ERα is directly involved in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism in macrophages and plays an important role in the gender differences observed in HIV protease inhibitor-induced atherosclerosis.