Timing and climatic drivers for glaciation across semi-arid western Himalayan-Tibetan orogen

Mapping and forty-seven new ¹⁰Be ages help define the timing of glaciation in the Ladakh and Pangong Ranges in Northwest India. Five new local glacial stages are defined for the Ladakh Range. From oldest to youngest these include: the Ladakh-4 glacial stage at 81±20ka; the Ladakh-3 glacial stage (not dated); the Ladakh-2 glacial stage at 22±3ka; the Ladakh-1 glacial stage (not dated); and the Ladakh Cirque glacial stage at 1.8±0.4ka. Three local glacial stages are defined for the Pangong Range, which include: the Pangong-2 glacial stage at 85±15ka; the Pangong-1 glacial stage at 40±3ka; and the Pangong Cirque glacial stage at 0.4±0.3ka. The new ¹⁰Be ages are combined with 645 recalculated ¹⁰Be ages from previous studies to develop the first regional framework of glaciation across the dryland regions of the Greater Himalaya, Transhimalaya, Pamir and Tian Shan at the western end of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. Nineteen regional glacial stages are recognized that are termed semi-arid western Himalayan-Tibetan stages (SWHTS). These include: SWHTS 9 at 311±32ka; SWHTS 7 at 234±44ka [tentative]; SWHTS 6 at 146±18ka; SWHTS 5E at 121±11ka; SWHTS 5A at 80±5ka; SWHTS 5A- at 72±8ka; SWHTS 4 at 61±5ka; SWHTS 3 at 46±4ka; SWHTS 2F at 30±3ka; SWHTS 2E at 20±2ka; SWHTS 2D at 16.9±0.7ka; SWHTS 2C at 14.9±0.8ka; SWHTS 2B at 13.9±0.5ka; SWHTS 2A at 12.2±0.8ka; SWHTS 1E at 8.8±0.3ka [tentative]; SWHTS 1D at 6.9±0.2ka [tentative]; SWHTS 1C at 3.8±0.6ka; SWHTS 1B at 1.7±0.2ka; and SWHTS 1A at 0.4±0.1ka. Regional glacial stages older than 21ka are broadly correlated with strong monsoons. SWHTS that are 21ka or younger, have smaller uncertainties and broadly correlate with global ice volume given by marine Oxygen Isotope Stages, and northern hemisphere climatic events (Oldest Dryas, Older Dryas, Younger Dryas, Roman Humid Period, and Little Ice Age).